One of the main ways software developers contribute to free and open-source projects is by creating pull requests to fix bugs, add features, clarify documentation, and to address other issues. A pull request is a proposal to make specific changes to the source code of a project. Projects usually have multiple versions of their source code, and one of them is the main version. The maintainers of the main version often encourage other developers to contribute to their projects by creating pull requests. How do pull requests work? Pull requests typically have five parts: the issue, changes, discussion, approval, and merge. The first step to creating a pull request is to identify an issue with the existing source code for a project. Pull requests are meant to be reversible, so developers are encour

Software programs, like other creative works, are released to its users under certain terms and conditions called licenses. When a license gives its users the rights/freedoms to use, study, copy, modify, improve, and redistribute it, then the software is considered free, or libre, and open-source software (FOSS). Background: In software development, companies and developers write software as a collection of many files called the source code or the code base. When the software is ready for use, they compile the source code into executable files. For example, applications on Windows and macOS typically have the file extensions .exe and .app, respectively. These executable files are usually unreadable and recovering the source from them is usually impossible. If the developers keep their source code private, then the software is said to be proprietary or

In February 2020, the Mozilla Foundation announced that it would enable DNS-over-HTTPS by default for all Firefox users in the United States. In this post, we'll explain what that is and why it matters. Background: You and your computer need to take many steps in order to connect to a website. At some steps, there's a possibility for your privacy or security to be vulnerable. When you use a web browser such as Firefox to connect to a website, you are viewing files on a remote computer. These computers are usually set up to serve the website files and are also known as web servers. These servers are usually assigned a series of numbers and letters known as IP addresses. You can think of these IP addresses like phone numbers f

Electron is an open source software framework that software developers can use to create desktop apps that work across Windows, macOS, and Linux operating systems. Background: Each operating system can only run apps written in certain programming languages, called native languages. If a developer wants an app to work on the system’s desktop, then they will need to write it in those languages. If an app is written in a system’s native language, then it is called a native app. For example, native apps for iOS and macOS are written in a language called Swift. Developing a sophisticated app for one platform takes a tremendous amount of expertise, time, money, and effort. If a developer wants the app to work across multiple platforms, they will need to rewrite it in multiple languages. This requires them to either understand the intricacies of each operating system and thei

End-to-end encryption is a system of encryption that allow parties to communicate in a way that severely limits the potential for third-parties to eavesdrop on or tamper with the messages. Third-parties may include government agencies and companies that provide internet, telecommunications, and online services. End-to-end encryption helps people communicate securely by emails, voice calls, instant messages, and video chats. It also secures communication between devices for sharing and syncing files. End-to-end encryption is most commonly used for digital communications, but it can also be used on paper. The big picture: There are many systems of encryption. End-to-end encryption is considered an improvement upon another system called point-to-point encryption, which is a standard for transmitting credit card data. When parties co

Encryption is the process of transforming readable text or data, called plaintext, into unreadable code called ciphertext. After the data is transformed, it is said to be encrypted. The reverse transformation process from ciphertext to plaintext is called decryption. Background: There are many methods of encryption. Each method aims to prevent decryption by anyone who doesn’t have a specific secret key, such as a password, fingerprint, or physical device. The big picture: Different forms of encryption have been used for thousands of years to secure communications. Modern mathematics and technology allow for widespread use of encryption methods that make it computationally impossible for third parties to decrypt the encrypted data without the secret key. Analogies: Modern encryption allows people to put their data into digital safes that have locks t